Chinese Studies Journal

บทบรรณาธิการ

Wuttipong Prapantamit — 2025-06-30

Beliefs on “Zigu” as the “Toilet Deity” and Perspectives on Social Inequality

Surasit Amornwanitsak — 2025-06-30

The study of the legend of “Zigu,” who was later worshiped as the “Toilet Deity,” reveals that the construction of beliefs surrounding Chinese spirits and deities remains deeply rooted in a patriarchal system. The status and rights of the principal wife are greater than those of the concubine, reflecting the persistent social inequality that has been passed down through generations.

The “Toilet Deity” is a belief deeply rooted in Chinese culture, evidenced clearly during the North-South dynasties period or around 1,600 years ago. The book of Yiyuan (A Garden of Marvels) of Liu Jingsu, particularly the chapter on “God Zigu,” links the deity to the toilet, leading to Zigu being worshipped as the “Toilet Deity.” However, the depiction of Zigu in Liu Jingshu’s writings is fierce, resembling more of a “ghost” than a “deity.” This contrasts with later periods where Zigu is portrayed a better image, even specifying Zigu deification.

The heart of the narrative that created Zigu’s pathetic image revolves around the tragic fate of a concubine oppressed by her the First Wife. Due to oppression and harassment, she commits suicide in the restroom to escape her misery. Considering the social context of that era, first wifes often displayed possessive, jealous, domineering behavior without fearing their husbands. Consequently, most concubines face difficulty and hardship, including laboring in households, like Zigu being assigned restroom-cleaning duties. This narrative serves as a mirror reflecting the harsh social reality of the North-South dynasties and the cruel fate where powerless women, like the concubines, opt for suicide as a means of escape.

The research of epidemic ghosts and the belief in expelling epidemics in the ancient Chinese Nuo culture

Arisa Haworadit — 2025-06-30

This study aims to explore the beliefs about the spirit world and the human world in Nuo culture, reflecting the perspective of the belief in ghosts and spirits that were used to drive away the spread of epidemics, and there is also a belief in Fang Xiangshi, who is believed to be a god who can drive away evil spirits and epidemics in Chinese history and culture. The study found that the ancient ritual beliefs related to exorcism in Chinese Nuo culture were originally based on the belief in expelling plague ghosts and evil spirits. In addition, it is interesting that the belief in "Nuo culture" has been passed down from generation to generation until it has crystallized into a product of religious beliefs and traditions, especially into the product of beliefs related to art, including dance science. For example, body movements and ritual dances, the art of masks etc., these things can prove that beliefs based on ghosts or gods are not always terrible or should be abandoned. Instead, it has been preserved and passed down until it has developed into a national intangible cultural heritage. Recently, Nuo opera and Nuo dance in Nuo culture are known as "living fossils of Chinese drama."

Vengeful Female Ghosts Becoming Immortals in the Supernatural Literature: Case Studies from Soushen ji, Yiyuan, and Shuyi ji

Supinda Rattanatangtrakoon — 2025-06-30

This study examines the transformation of female ghosts into immortals in records of anomalies (志怪小说; zhiguai xiaoshuo) from the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties era (220–589 CE), focusing on three representative works: In Search of the Supernatural (搜神记; Soushen ji), Garden of Marvels (异苑; Yiyuan), and Forgotten Tales (述异记; Shuyi ji). The research examines cultural context, symbolic meaning, and concepts related to female status, justice, and the meaning of life in society. The goal is to understand how vengeful female ghosts become immortals and what this process reveals about sociocultural and religious beliefs of the time.

Results were that the female ghosts typically undergo a four-stage process: 1) unjust death and deep resentment; 2) return as vengeful, justice-seeking spirit; 3) religious or belief system influence; and 4) transcend by spiritual cultivation. These stories reflect patriarchal society injustices while exemplifying reversals of fate through Daoist self-cultivation or supernatural empowerment. These metamorphoses reflect female social roles, implying that the human and spirit realms are interconnected and permeable. These findings contribute to comprehending ancient Chinese sociocultural through perspectives potentially causing reevaluation of fate, morality, and transcendence in contemporary society.

Ghosts and Mediums: Local Memories and Taiwanese History in Zhang Jiaxiang’s Novel Yeguanxunchang

Jirayut Hansapan — 2025-06-30

This research paper discusses a study of ghost characters and medium characters in the novel Yeguanxunchang by Zhang Jiaxiang. The results found that these ghosts and mediums are used to construct and represent local memories and Taiwanese history. These ghosts can be categorized into three types: home-returning ghosts, female ghosts oppressed by patriarchy, and political victim ghosts. The stories of home-returning ghosts and political victim ghosts are narrated to highlight the impacts of state violence on family breakdown and to indicate the non-presence of the political victims killed by the state who are still waiting for justice. The stories of female ghosts are told to raise awareness about female oppression in Taiwanese society. The places that the mediums have visited are connected with local memories and Taiwanese history. In addition, the mediums are associated with Yeguan, a local god/ghost who is in between good and evil, and works as a protector of wandering ghosts, representing diversity in Taiwanese society. The journey of the mediums and the reconnaissance of Yeguan around the town express the author’s imagination and hope for Taiwan to be a society that embraces diversity and marginalized people.

Guan Yu Tattoos as Symbols of Identity and Faith: A Symbolic Interactionist Analysis

Suphalak Rongkul — 2025-06-30

This qualitative research aims to: (1) investigate the symbolic meanings and roles of Guan Yu tattoos in the context of Phuket; (2) analyze the tattoos as tools for expressing personal identity, belief, and values; and (3) examine social perceptions and symbolic interactions that influence the interpretation of such tattoos. The study adopts Symbolic Communication and Symbolic Interactionism frameworks proposed by Mead and Blumer. Fieldwork was conducted in Phuket Province through in-depth interviews with 10 informants and participant observation in cultural and religious spaces. Data were analyzed using content analysis and thematic analysis based on Braun and Clarke’s approach. The findings reveal that (1) Guan Yu tattoos reflect moral identity such as courage, loyalty, and integrity; (2) they serve as spiritual expressions rooted in Chinese-Thai family traditions; and (3) their meanings are negotiated through social perception—ranging from admiration to stigma and adaptation. This research conceptualizes tattoos as a “cultural space on the body” shaped by identity, belief, and the social gaze.

“Luotouchong” The Krasue in Chinese Ancient Texts: Evolution from Jin to Qing Dynasties

Jakkrit Neamsombut — 2025-06-30

This study aims to analyze the evolution of beliefs about the Krasue (a female ghost with detachable head) in ancient Chinese documents from the Jin Dynasty (266-420 CE) to the Qing Dynasty (1616-1912 CE) through primary source analysis. The findings reveal significant evolutionary changes in the conceptualization of the Krasue. During the Jin Dynasty, the “Bowuzhi” document referred to similar creatures as “Luotouchong” (落头虫), describing them as special beings whose heads could fly using ears as wings, not yet considered dangerous to humans. In the Tang Dynasty, records introduced a new term “Feitouliaozi” (飞头獠子) with additional physical details like red neck marks and nocturnal feeding behaviors. The Ming Dynasty saw a complete transformation, where the Krasue was viewed as a dangerous demon called “Shitouman” (尸头蛮) with terrifying behaviors such as consuming filth and harming humans. By the Qing Dynasty, this belief had merged with local cultures, particularly among the Yao ethnic group, appearing as “Feitouyao” (飞头熎) with distinctly different characteristics from earlier periods. This study demonstrates how beliefs about the Krasue clearly evolved according to China's socio-cultural contexts across different historical periods, developing from special creatures to dangerous demons, and finally becoming part of local folklore.

Research on the Inheritance and Protection of the Yugur Ethnic Group’s Intangible Cultural Heritage Based on Sensory Brand Strategies

Zhang Changjun — 2025-06-30

This paper takes the three national intangible cultural heritages of Yugu clothing, marriage customs and folk songs as the research objects, aiming to explore the effective path of their inheritance, protection and innovative dissemination in the context of globalization. The study analyzes their core cultural connotations through cultural semiotics, and combines field research, interviews with tourists and the current communication status to reveal the challenges of inheritance faced by the Yugu intangible cultural heritage, such as the fault line of the inheritors and the impact of modern life, as well as the opportunities for the development of cultural and tourism integration, such as the support of the policy and the empowerment of digital communication technology. The study finds that tourists' sensory experience of Yugu culture (e.g., visual recognition of dress patterns and auditory memory of folk songs) is a key contact point for enhancing cultural identity, but there are problems of symbol fragmentation and shallow experience in the existing communication. Based on this, the study proposes an innovative path of integrating sensory branding strategies: through building a “five senses” cultural experience system (such as tactile exhibition of costumes and immersive interpretation of wedding scenes), deepening the integration mode of “non-legacy + tourism”, “non-legacy + digital platform”, and strengthening the integration mode of “non-legacy + tourism” and “non-legacy + digital platform”. platform” integration mode, as well as strengthening policy protection and community participation, to promote the Yugu non-heritage from static protection to living inheritance, and help its value transformation in the casting of the Chinese national community and international cultural dissemination.

Chinese Yici 義祠– The Transition from the Fellow-Township Model to the Chinese Buddhism Model (Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City)

Đoàn Cảnh — 2025-06-30

This study aims to examine the functional transformation of Chinese Yici institutions within the context of Vietnamese–Chinese Buddhist integration. The study primarily employs historical methodology and functionalist theory to analyze the process by which Buddhist institutions have encroached upon and replaced the functions of traditional worship centers, within the broader context of social development and transformation. The Chinese community in Ho Chi Minh City has a long-standing history. Their social organization is fundamentally based on five linguistic groups, established during the French colonial period on the foundation of regional affiliations. French policies allowed each linguistic group, represented by a respective guild, to have its management structures, including cemetery temples. Chinese cemetery temples operated under a system of regional affiliations, with charitable activities focused on honoring the deceased and repatriating remains to their homeland. Over time, as the guild-based management system dissolved, these cemetery temples gradually shifted their focus towards charitable activities, mutual aid, connections with hospitals, and participation in festivals such as Vu Lan and the Lantern Festival. The management structure transitioned from being regionally based to being under Chinese Mahayana Buddhism or a combination of both. The Mahayana Buddhist tradition, rooted in the distinct beliefs of the Chinese community, facilitated this functional transformation smoothly, aligning with Buddhism's compassionate principles. The research finds that Mahayana Buddhist principles facilitated a smooth institutional transformation, preserving cultural identity while shifting community functions toward charitable work.

From “Guanxi” to “Kongsi”: The Gathering of the Overseas Chinese under Social Relationships

Uma Sinthuset — 2025-06-30

This academic article aims to study the background of the “kongsi” of the Chinese in Southeast Asia from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries by discussing the patterns of “guanxi” (关系), or “relations”, of the members as reflected in the three groups of the kongsi, including the gold mining kongsis in Borneo during the eighteenth to the nineteenth centuries, the secret society kongsis, and the clan kongsis. It found that the Chinese kongsis were established for economic purposes of the overseas Chinese. They formed the kongsi under the fundamental principle of social arrangements grounded in the Confucian philosophy. The three groups of the kongsi reflected the fundamental principle of social arrangements in three characteristics, as follows: those between ruler and subject as reflected in the gold mining kongsis in Borneo, elder brother and younger brother as reflected in the the secret society kongsis, and father and son as reflected in the clan kongsis. The hierarchical social relationships led to the systematic management within kongsis that had an effect on the members’ harmony. The formation of many people under the condition of “guanxi” in the characteristics of the “kongsi” was considered to be a key factor building the strength of the overseas Chinese business groups in Southeast Asia from the past to the present.

The Tributary System for Foreign Relations during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD) (B.E. 1814-1911)

Jiewei Luo — 2025-06-30

The Tributary System for Foreign Relations during the Yuan Dynasty, 1271-1368 (B.E. 1814-1911), Objectives: This study aims to investigate: (1) the tributary system for foreign relations during the Yuan Dynasty, and (2) its significant role in international relations. Methodology this research employs the analysis of historical data from Chinese chronicles and relevant ancient documents. Scope of Study: The study considers the interconnectedness between the tributary system and key factors, including: (1) the transportation system during the Yuan Dynasty; (2) the tributary system during the Yuan Dynasty; (3) the patterns of international trade during the Yuan Dynasty; (4) international cultural relations during the Yuan Dynasty; and (5) key factors promoting the foreign relations of the Yuan Dynasty. Findings: The study reveals that the tributary system for foreign relations during the Yuan Dynasty brought about a context of development and change. The transportation system facilitated international communication and exchange. The unique characteristics of the tribute missions fostered amicable international relations, which were linked to diverse patterns of international trade. This led to cultural exchanges in religion, art, science, and technology, and fostered an open foreign policy, business regulations conducive to trade, and an efficient transportation system. Despite its origins in the expansion of power through the tributary system, it ultimately led to a significant connection between the East and the West, the effects of which have continued to develop and build upon civilization to the present day.

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Wuttipong Prapantamit — 2025-06-30

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Wuttipong Prapantamit — 2025-06-30

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Wuttipong Prapantamit — 2025-06-30