Middle Eastern Worldviews Impact China Part 1 Entry and Progress of Judeo-Christian Thought
Main Article Content
Abstract
Residual knowledge of God and early world events was held by the Chinese in their language from time immemorial. Jewish influences were felt in the countries bordering China since the first diaspora (721 BCE). Jewish thought does not appear to have had a significant influence on the Chinese. Christian influences commenced soon after CE 31. Early contact is reputed to have been through the apostle Thomas, an Ethiopian mission (fourth century) and others, and especially through the Church of the East. All this happened well before the well-known efforts of Alopen in CE 635. The Church of the East held to the apostolic faith. Its witness was interrupted by bouts of persecution. In China, this became intense under the Ming dynasty (commenced 1368) and the emperor’s effects were complemented by the closure of the Silk Road and fierce persecution in Muslim territories under Tamerlane. Essentially, early Christian influence in China ceased by the end of the fourteenth century. Remnant groups persisted in the mountainous regions bordering China and could be regarded as surviving members of the wilderness church. The lessons and failures in contextualization coming from the early experience of Christians in Asia contain valuable information.
Article Details
Section
Academic Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright: Asia-Pacific International University reserve exclusive rights to publish, reproduce and distribute the manuscript and all contents therein.
References
Adeney, W. F. (1965). The Greek and eastern churches. Clifton, New York: Reference Book Publishers, Inc.
Adoniram Judson (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoniram_Judson
Armstrong, K. (1993). A History of God. New York: Ballantine Books.
Baum, W., & Winkler, D. W. (2003). The Church of the East. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Baumer, C. (2006). The Church of the East. London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. Braun, E. (2016). China. The virtual Jewish world. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved from https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/chinajews.html
Ben-Sasson H. & Malamat, A. (1976). A history of the Jewish people. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Blofeld, J. (1948). The jewel in the lotus. London: Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd.
Boadt, L. (1984). Reading the Old Testament: an Introduction. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press.
Browne, J. (Ed.). (1996). Family encyclopedia of world history. London: Reader’s Digest Association Limited.
Cerminarno, A. (2007). The three jewels of the Tao Te Ching. Retrieved from https://acerminaro.blogspot.com.au/2007/12/three-jewels-of-tao-te-ching.html
Chiangyin, P., & Fan, W. (Eds.). (2003). The history and civilization of China. Beijing: Central Document Publisher.
Ching, J. (1993). Chinese religions. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
Ching, J. (1989). Confucianism: Ethical humanism as religion—Chinese perspectives. In H. Küng & J. Ching (Eds.) Christianity and Chinese religions (pp. 61-91). New York: Doubleday.
Christianity in China. (n.d.). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Christianity_in_China
Cohen, R. (2008). Global diasporas: An Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Saint Victor I. (Eds.). (n.d.). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://global.britannica. com/biography/Saint-Victor-I
Ehrlich, M. A. (2009). Jews in China. In M. A. Ehrlich. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: Origins, experiences, and culture (Vol. 3). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, LLC.
Ethnic Nationalities of Burma. (n.d). Oxford Burma Alliance. Retrieved from https://www. oxfordburmaalliance.org/ethnic-groups.html
Ferreira, J. (2004). Tang Christianity: Its origins and character. Jian Dao, Issue 21, 129–157.
Ferreira, J. (2007). Did Christianity reach China in the Han dynasty? Asia Journal of Theology, 21(1), 124-134.
Gibbon, E. (1984). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire (chap. 15). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gordon, E. A. (1993). “World-healers,” or the lotus gospel and its bodhisattvas compared with early Christianity (Vols. 1-2). Haryana, India: Vintage Books.
Heraclius. (n.d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius
Hirth, F. (1917). The story of Chang K’ién, China's pioneer in western Asia: Text and translation of chapter 123 of Ssï-Ma Ts'ién's Shï-Ki. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 37, 89-152.
Holmes, W. G. (1912). The Age of Justinian and Theodora (2nd ed.) (Vol. 2). London: G. Bell and Sons.
Hucker, C. O. (1978).The Ming dynasty: Its origins and evolving Institutions. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Humphreys, C. (1958). Buddhism. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.
Jenkins, P. (2008). The lost history of Christianity. Oxford: Lion.
Judson, A. H. (1827). Judson’s mission to the Burman people. London Magazine, 8, 285-313.
Karen. (1996). Encyclopedia of world cultures. The Gale Group, Inc. Retrieved from https://www. encyclopedia.com/places/asia/south-asia-physical-geography/karen
Küng, H. 1991. Theology for the third millennium. London: HarperCollins Publishers.
Kutanan, W., Kampuansai, J., Colonna, V. et al. (2011a). Genetic affinity and admixture of northern Thai people along their migration route in northern Thailand: evidence from autosomal STR loci. Journal of Human Genetics, 56, 130-137. Retrieved from https:// doi:10.1038/jhg.2010.135.
Kutanan, W., Kampuansai, J., Fuselli, S. et al. (2011b). Genetic structure of the Mon-Khmer speaking groups and their affinity to the neighbouring Tai populations in northern Thailand. BMC Genetics, 12:56. Retrieved from https:// doi: 10.1186/1471-2156-12-56.
Kutanan, W., Srikummool, M., Pittayaporn, P. et al. (2015). Admixed origin of the Kayah (Red Karen) in northern Thailand revealed by biparental and paternal markers. Annals of Human Genetics, 79(2), 108-121.
Lai, W., & von Brück, M. (2001). Christianity and Buddhism. New York: Orbis Books.
Lao Tzu. (1997). Tao Te Ching Waley A., Trans.). Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics of World Literature.
Legge, J. (1983). The Chinese classics: The works of Mencius (bk 5, pt. 1, chap. 7, pp. 293, 296; pt 4, bk 2, chap. 4, par. 9, p. 183). Tapei: SMC Publishing, Inc.
Leslie, D. D. (1972). The survival of the Chinese Jews: the Jewish community of Kaifeng. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Lewis, C. S. (1973). The abolition of man. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
List of Ethnic Groups in Myanmar (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar.
Mark, J. J. (2012, December 20). Lao-tzu. In Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu.com/Lao-Tzu/
Metzger, B. M. (1965). The New Testament: Its background, growth, and content. New York: Abingdon Press.
Mongol Invasions of Burma (n.d.). World Heritage Encyclopedia. Retrieved form https://self. gutenberg. org/articles/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma
Najim, M. (n.d). Antioch and Syriac Christianity: a Chalcedonian perspective on a spiritual heritage. Retrieved from https://www.aramaic-dem.org/English/History/antiochandsyriacchristianity.pdf
Najim, M., & Frazier, T. L. (n.d.). Antioch: a brief history of the patriarchate of Antioch. Retrieved from https://najim.net/ANTIOCHhistoryencyclopedia.pdf
Christianity in China. (2013). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Christianity_in_China
Neuman, J. 1974. An essay on the development of Christian doctrine (edition of 1845). Edited by J. M. Cameron. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books.
Nichol, F. D., Cottrell, R. F., Neufeld, D. F., & Neuffer, J., Eds. (1957). The Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary (Vol. 6). Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association.
Oss, J. 2012. The week and the Sabbath in China (Eds. J. B. Youngberg & S. H. Hsiao). Berrien Springs, Michigan: John B. Youngberg.
Parker, E. H. (1910). Studies in the Chinese religion. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. [Original on Sha-lüh located in Wei Chi, chap. 30, 29].
Plamintr, S. (2007). The discovery of Buddhism. Nonthaburi, Thailand: Write & Read Publishing Co.
Pollock, J. (1983). Hudson Taylor and Maria (2nd paperback ed.). Ross-shire, Great Britain: Christian Forum.
Pothan, S. G. (1963). The Syrian Christian churches. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
Prebish, C. S., & Keown, D. (2006). Introducing Buddhism. New York: Routledge.
Richardson, D. (1985). Eternity in their hearts. Ventura, California: Regal Books.
Route of Silk Road. (n.d.) Travel China Guide. Retrieved from https://www.travelchinaguide.com/silkroad/route.htm
Sasanian Empire. (n.d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Empire
Schmidt, R., Sager, G. C., Carney, G. T. et al. (1999). Patterns of religion. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Schoff, W. H. (1917). Navigation to the Far East under the Roman Empire. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 37, 240-249.
Schultz, J. P. (1981). Judaism and the gentile faiths: comparative studies in religion. Madison, New Jersey: Farleigh Dickinson University Press.
Shipton, W. A. (2014), Asian Christianity and the Wilderness church. In: W. Shipton, E. Coetzee & R. Takeuchi, R. (Eds.), Worldviews and Christian education. Singapore: Partridge.
Soothill, W. E. (1951). The three religions of China. London: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, J. (1928). Nestorian missionary enterprise. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
Sun, H., Zhou, C., Huang, X. et al. (2013). Autosomal STRs provide genetic evidence for the hypothesis that Tai people originate from southern China. Plos One, 8(4), e60822. Retrieved from http// doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060822.
Tan, C. (2013). Confucius. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments. Other references are not given a specific entry. Unless otherwise stated, quotations come from the King James Version (KJV). Retrieved from https://www.biblegateway.com/
Thompson, P. (1956). King of the Lisu. London: China Inland Mission.
Vine, A. R. (1937). The Nestorian churches. London: Independent Press.
Vladimirsky, I. (2009). Jews in Afghanistan. In M. A. Ehrlick (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: origins, experiences, and culture (Vol. 3). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, LLC.
Wace, H. . (2000). A dictionary of Christian biography and literature to the end of the sixth century A.D., with an account of the principal sects and heresies. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
Walther, D. (1968). Were the Albigenes and Waldenses forerunners of the Reformation? Andrews University Seminary Studies 4(2), 178-202.
Wang, S., & Nelson, E. (2002). God and the ancient Chinese. Dunlap, NT: Read Books Publisher.
Ward, W. (1823). All religions and religious ceremonies. Part I. Christianity–Mohometanism, and Judaism. Hartford: Oliver D. Cooke & Sons.
Weil, S. (2009). Jews in India. In M. A. Ehrlich (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: Origins, experiences, and culture (Vol. 3). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, LLC.
Wen, B., Li, H., Lu, D. et al. (2004). Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture. Science, 431(7006), 302-305.
Wilkinson, B. G. (1944). Truth triumphant. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Association.
Wilkinson, R. (1997). Introduction to Tao Te Ching, by Lao-tzu. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics of World Literature.
Wingram, W. A. (1909). An Introduction to the history of the Assyrian Church. Turkey: Assyrian International News Agency (chap. 4). Retrieved from www.aina.org
Wigram W. A. (2004). An Introduction to the history of the Assyrian church. Piscataway, N. J.: Gorgias Press LLC.
Wood, F. (2002). The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia. London: The British Library.
Xin, X. (2004). Jewish diasporas in China. In M. Ember, C. R. Ember, & J. Skoggard (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigration and refugee cultures around the world, vol. 1. Overviews and topics (pp. 153-164). New York: Springer.
Yao, X. (2001). An introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Adoniram Judson (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoniram_Judson
Armstrong, K. (1993). A History of God. New York: Ballantine Books.
Baum, W., & Winkler, D. W. (2003). The Church of the East. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Baumer, C. (2006). The Church of the East. London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. Braun, E. (2016). China. The virtual Jewish world. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved from https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/chinajews.html
Ben-Sasson H. & Malamat, A. (1976). A history of the Jewish people. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Blofeld, J. (1948). The jewel in the lotus. London: Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd.
Boadt, L. (1984). Reading the Old Testament: an Introduction. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press.
Browne, J. (Ed.). (1996). Family encyclopedia of world history. London: Reader’s Digest Association Limited.
Cerminarno, A. (2007). The three jewels of the Tao Te Ching. Retrieved from https://acerminaro.blogspot.com.au/2007/12/three-jewels-of-tao-te-ching.html
Chiangyin, P., & Fan, W. (Eds.). (2003). The history and civilization of China. Beijing: Central Document Publisher.
Ching, J. (1993). Chinese religions. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
Ching, J. (1989). Confucianism: Ethical humanism as religion—Chinese perspectives. In H. Küng & J. Ching (Eds.) Christianity and Chinese religions (pp. 61-91). New York: Doubleday.
Christianity in China. (n.d.). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Christianity_in_China
Cohen, R. (2008). Global diasporas: An Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Saint Victor I. (Eds.). (n.d.). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://global.britannica. com/biography/Saint-Victor-I
Ehrlich, M. A. (2009). Jews in China. In M. A. Ehrlich. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: Origins, experiences, and culture (Vol. 3). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, LLC.
Ethnic Nationalities of Burma. (n.d). Oxford Burma Alliance. Retrieved from https://www. oxfordburmaalliance.org/ethnic-groups.html
Ferreira, J. (2004). Tang Christianity: Its origins and character. Jian Dao, Issue 21, 129–157.
Ferreira, J. (2007). Did Christianity reach China in the Han dynasty? Asia Journal of Theology, 21(1), 124-134.
Gibbon, E. (1984). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire (chap. 15). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gordon, E. A. (1993). “World-healers,” or the lotus gospel and its bodhisattvas compared with early Christianity (Vols. 1-2). Haryana, India: Vintage Books.
Heraclius. (n.d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius
Hirth, F. (1917). The story of Chang K’ién, China's pioneer in western Asia: Text and translation of chapter 123 of Ssï-Ma Ts'ién's Shï-Ki. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 37, 89-152.
Holmes, W. G. (1912). The Age of Justinian and Theodora (2nd ed.) (Vol. 2). London: G. Bell and Sons.
Hucker, C. O. (1978).The Ming dynasty: Its origins and evolving Institutions. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Humphreys, C. (1958). Buddhism. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.
Jenkins, P. (2008). The lost history of Christianity. Oxford: Lion.
Judson, A. H. (1827). Judson’s mission to the Burman people. London Magazine, 8, 285-313.
Karen. (1996). Encyclopedia of world cultures. The Gale Group, Inc. Retrieved from https://www. encyclopedia.com/places/asia/south-asia-physical-geography/karen
Küng, H. 1991. Theology for the third millennium. London: HarperCollins Publishers.
Kutanan, W., Kampuansai, J., Colonna, V. et al. (2011a). Genetic affinity and admixture of northern Thai people along their migration route in northern Thailand: evidence from autosomal STR loci. Journal of Human Genetics, 56, 130-137. Retrieved from https:// doi:10.1038/jhg.2010.135.
Kutanan, W., Kampuansai, J., Fuselli, S. et al. (2011b). Genetic structure of the Mon-Khmer speaking groups and their affinity to the neighbouring Tai populations in northern Thailand. BMC Genetics, 12:56. Retrieved from https:// doi: 10.1186/1471-2156-12-56.
Kutanan, W., Srikummool, M., Pittayaporn, P. et al. (2015). Admixed origin of the Kayah (Red Karen) in northern Thailand revealed by biparental and paternal markers. Annals of Human Genetics, 79(2), 108-121.
Lai, W., & von Brück, M. (2001). Christianity and Buddhism. New York: Orbis Books.
Lao Tzu. (1997). Tao Te Ching Waley A., Trans.). Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics of World Literature.
Legge, J. (1983). The Chinese classics: The works of Mencius (bk 5, pt. 1, chap. 7, pp. 293, 296; pt 4, bk 2, chap. 4, par. 9, p. 183). Tapei: SMC Publishing, Inc.
Leslie, D. D. (1972). The survival of the Chinese Jews: the Jewish community of Kaifeng. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Lewis, C. S. (1973). The abolition of man. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
List of Ethnic Groups in Myanmar (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Myanmar.
Mark, J. J. (2012, December 20). Lao-tzu. In Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu.com/Lao-Tzu/
Metzger, B. M. (1965). The New Testament: Its background, growth, and content. New York: Abingdon Press.
Mongol Invasions of Burma (n.d.). World Heritage Encyclopedia. Retrieved form https://self. gutenberg. org/articles/Mongol_invasions_of_Burma
Najim, M. (n.d). Antioch and Syriac Christianity: a Chalcedonian perspective on a spiritual heritage. Retrieved from https://www.aramaic-dem.org/English/History/antiochandsyriacchristianity.pdf
Najim, M., & Frazier, T. L. (n.d.). Antioch: a brief history of the patriarchate of Antioch. Retrieved from https://najim.net/ANTIOCHhistoryencyclopedia.pdf
Christianity in China. (2013). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Christianity_in_China
Neuman, J. 1974. An essay on the development of Christian doctrine (edition of 1845). Edited by J. M. Cameron. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books.
Nichol, F. D., Cottrell, R. F., Neufeld, D. F., & Neuffer, J., Eds. (1957). The Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commentary (Vol. 6). Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association.
Oss, J. 2012. The week and the Sabbath in China (Eds. J. B. Youngberg & S. H. Hsiao). Berrien Springs, Michigan: John B. Youngberg.
Parker, E. H. (1910). Studies in the Chinese religion. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. [Original on Sha-lüh located in Wei Chi, chap. 30, 29].
Plamintr, S. (2007). The discovery of Buddhism. Nonthaburi, Thailand: Write & Read Publishing Co.
Pollock, J. (1983). Hudson Taylor and Maria (2nd paperback ed.). Ross-shire, Great Britain: Christian Forum.
Pothan, S. G. (1963). The Syrian Christian churches. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
Prebish, C. S., & Keown, D. (2006). Introducing Buddhism. New York: Routledge.
Richardson, D. (1985). Eternity in their hearts. Ventura, California: Regal Books.
Route of Silk Road. (n.d.) Travel China Guide. Retrieved from https://www.travelchinaguide.com/silkroad/route.htm
Sasanian Empire. (n.d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Empire
Schmidt, R., Sager, G. C., Carney, G. T. et al. (1999). Patterns of religion. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Schoff, W. H. (1917). Navigation to the Far East under the Roman Empire. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 37, 240-249.
Schultz, J. P. (1981). Judaism and the gentile faiths: comparative studies in religion. Madison, New Jersey: Farleigh Dickinson University Press.
Shipton, W. A. (2014), Asian Christianity and the Wilderness church. In: W. Shipton, E. Coetzee & R. Takeuchi, R. (Eds.), Worldviews and Christian education. Singapore: Partridge.
Soothill, W. E. (1951). The three religions of China. London: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, J. (1928). Nestorian missionary enterprise. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
Sun, H., Zhou, C., Huang, X. et al. (2013). Autosomal STRs provide genetic evidence for the hypothesis that Tai people originate from southern China. Plos One, 8(4), e60822. Retrieved from http// doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060822.
Tan, C. (2013). Confucius. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments. Other references are not given a specific entry. Unless otherwise stated, quotations come from the King James Version (KJV). Retrieved from https://www.biblegateway.com/
Thompson, P. (1956). King of the Lisu. London: China Inland Mission.
Vine, A. R. (1937). The Nestorian churches. London: Independent Press.
Vladimirsky, I. (2009). Jews in Afghanistan. In M. A. Ehrlick (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: origins, experiences, and culture (Vol. 3). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, LLC.
Wace, H. . (2000). A dictionary of Christian biography and literature to the end of the sixth century A.D., with an account of the principal sects and heresies. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Christian Classics Ethereal Library.
Walther, D. (1968). Were the Albigenes and Waldenses forerunners of the Reformation? Andrews University Seminary Studies 4(2), 178-202.
Wang, S., & Nelson, E. (2002). God and the ancient Chinese. Dunlap, NT: Read Books Publisher.
Ward, W. (1823). All religions and religious ceremonies. Part I. Christianity–Mohometanism, and Judaism. Hartford: Oliver D. Cooke & Sons.
Weil, S. (2009). Jews in India. In M. A. Ehrlich (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Jewish diaspora: Origins, experiences, and culture (Vol. 3). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, LLC.
Wen, B., Li, H., Lu, D. et al. (2004). Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture. Science, 431(7006), 302-305.
Wilkinson, B. G. (1944). Truth triumphant. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Association.
Wilkinson, R. (1997). Introduction to Tao Te Ching, by Lao-tzu. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics of World Literature.
Wingram, W. A. (1909). An Introduction to the history of the Assyrian Church. Turkey: Assyrian International News Agency (chap. 4). Retrieved from www.aina.org
Wigram W. A. (2004). An Introduction to the history of the Assyrian church. Piscataway, N. J.: Gorgias Press LLC.
Wood, F. (2002). The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia. London: The British Library.
Xin, X. (2004). Jewish diasporas in China. In M. Ember, C. R. Ember, & J. Skoggard (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigration and refugee cultures around the world, vol. 1. Overviews and topics (pp. 153-164). New York: Springer.
Yao, X. (2001). An introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.