Infant and Child Health and Disease with Agricultural Intensification in Mainland Southeast Asia

Authors

  • Siân E. Halcrow Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, New Zealand
  • Nancy Tayles Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, New Zealand
  • Charlotte L. King Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, New Zealand
  • Thanik Lertcharnrit ภาควิชาโบราณคดี คณะโบราณคดี มหาวิทยาลัยศิลปากร กรุงเทพ

Keywords:

bioarchaeology, infants and child health, Southeast Asia, agricultural intensification

Abstract

This article presents a synthesis of infant and child health and disease from seven different sites in Thailand, c. 2,000 BCE-500 CE, to assess whether there is any evidence for a change in health with agricultural intensification. An analysis of mortality, growth disruption, and dental health suggests overall health did not deteriorate over time. However, bone pathology suggests an increase in infectious disease over time. A combination of broad-spectrum subsistence economies, localised environments and the development of major environmental changes occurring during the end of the prehistoric period in the Iron Age likely underpin the temporal health patterns seen in this region.

References

Anderson, R. M., 1993. Epidemiology, In Cox, F. E. G. (Ed.), Modern Parasitology. 2nd ed. (pp. 75–116). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.

Bayard, D. T., 1971. Non Nok Tha: the 1968 Excavation, Procedure, Stratigraphy and Summary of the Evidence. Dunedin: Department of Anthropology, University of Otago, New Zealand.

Bayard, D. T., 1996. Bones of contention: the Non Nok Tha burials and the chronology and context of early Southeast Asian bronze. In Barnard, N., and Bulbeck, F., (Eds.), Ancient Chinese and Southeast Bronze Age Cultures: the proceedings of a conference held at the Edith and Joy London Foundation property, Kioloa, NSW, 8-12 February, 1988 (pp. 889–940). Taiwan: Taipei Southern Material Centre Inc.

Bennike, P., M. E. Lewis, H. Schutkowski and F. Valentin, 2005. Comparison of child morbidity in two contrasting medieval cemeteries from Denmark. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 128: 734–746.

Bentley, G. R., R. R. Paine and J. L. Boldsen, 2001. Fertility changes with the prehistoric transition to agriculture. In Ellison, P. T. (Ed.), Reproductive Ecology and Human Evolution (pp. 203–266). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

Bentley, R. A., M. Pietrusewsky, M. T. Douglas and T. C. Atkinson, 2005. Matrilocality during the prehistoric transition to agriculture in Thailand? Antiquity 79 (30): 865–881.

Bentley, R. A., N. Tayles, C. F. W. Higham, C. Macpherson and T. C. Atkinson, 2007. Shifting gender relations at Khok Phanom Di, Thailand. Current Anthropology 48 (2): 301–314.

Bocquet-Appel, J. P. and S. Naji, 2006. Testing the hypothesis of a worldwide Neolithic demographic transition. Current Anthropology 47: 341–365.

Boyd, W. E. and N. Chang, 2010. Integrating social and environmental change in prehistory: a discussion of the role of landscape as a heuristic in defining prehistoric possibilities in NE Thailand. In Haberle, S., J. Stevenson and M. Prebble (Eds.), Altered Ecologies-Fire, Climate and Human Influence on Terrestrial Landscapes (pp. 273–297). Canberra, ACT: Terra Australis, ANU E Press.

Boyd, W. E. and J. Habberfield-Short, 2007. Geoarchaeological landscape model of the Iron Age settlements of the upper Mun River floodplain. In Higham, C. F. W., A. Kijngam and S. Talbot (Eds.), The Origins of theCivilisation of Angkor, Volume II: The excavation of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao (pp. 1–27). Bangkok: Fine Arts Department.

Boyd, W. E. and McGrath, R. J., 2001. The geoarchaeology of the prehistoric ditched sites of the upper Mae Nam Mun, NE Thailand, III: Late Holocene vegetation history. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171: 307–328.

Brickley, M. and R. Ives, 2006. Skeletal manifestations of infantile scurvy. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 129: 163–172.

Brook, A. H., J. M. Fearne and J. M. Smith, 1997. Environmental causes of enamel defects. In Chadwick, D. J. and G. Cardew (Eds.), Dental Enamel (pp. 212–225). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.

Buckley, H. R., 2001. Health and Disease in the Prehistoric Pacific Islands. PhD thesis, University of Otago, New Zealand.

Buckley, H. R., 2006. ‘The predators within’: Investigating the relationship between malaria and health in the prehistoric Pacific Islands. In Oxenham, M. F. and N. Tayles (Eds.), Bioarcheology of Southeast Asia (pp. 309–332). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Buckley, H. R., R. Kinaston, S. E. Halcrow, A. Foster, M. Spriggs and S. Bedford, 2014. Scurvy in a tropical paradise? Evaluating the possibility of infant and adult vitamin C deficiency in the Lapita skeletal sample of Teouma, Vanuatu, Pacific islands. International Journal of Paleopathology 5: 72–85.

Carli-Thiele, P. and M. Schultz, 1997. Microscopic differential diagnosis of so called cribra orbitalia – a contribution to the etiology of orbital porotic hyperostosis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 24: 88.

Clark, A. L., N. Tayles and S. E. Halcrow, 2014. Aspects of health in prehistoric mainland Southeast Asia: Indicators of stress in response to the intensification of rice agriculture. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 153: 484–495.

Cohen, M. N., 1989. Health and the Rise of Civilization. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Cohen, M. N. and G. J. Armelagos (Eds.), 1984. Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Curtis, V., S. Cairnross, and R. Yonli, 2000. Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea – pinpointing the problem. Tropical Medicine and International Health 5: 22–32.

DeWitte, S. N., 2014. Differential survival among individuals with active and healed periosteal new bone formation. International Journal of Paleopathology 7: 38–44.

Domett, K. M., 2001. Health in Late Prehistoric Thailand. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Domett, K. M. and N. Tayles, 2006. Human biology from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Mun River Valley of Northeast Thailand. In Oxenham, M. F. and N. Tayles (Eds.), Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia (pp. 220–240). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Douglas, M. T., 1996. Paleopathology in Human Skeletal Remains from the Pre-metal, Bronze and Iron Ages, Northeastern Thailand. PhD thesis, University of Hawaii, United States of America.

El-Najjar, M. Y., D. J. Ryan, C. G. Turner and B. Lozoff, 1976. The etiology of porotic hyperostosis among the prehistoric and historic Anasazi Indians of the Southwestern United States. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 44: 477–488.

Fairgrieve, S. I. and J. E. Molto, 2000. Cribra orbitalia in two temporally disjunct population samples from the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 111: 319–331.

Glencross, B. and L. A. Sawchuk, 2003. The person–years construct: Ageing and the prevalence of health related phenomena from skeletal samples. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 13: 369–374.

Glover, I. and B. Syme, 1993. The Bronze Age in Southeast Asia: Its recognition, dating and recent research. Man and Environment 8: 41–74.

Goodman, A. H., L. H. Allen, G. P. Hernandez, A. Amador, L. V. Arriola, A. Chávez and G. H. Pelto, 1987. Prevalence and age at development of enamel hypoplasias in Mexican children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 72: 7–19.

Goodman, A. H., G. J. Armelagos and J. C. Rose, 1984. The chronological distribution of enamel hypoplasias from prehistoric Dickson mounds populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 65: 259–266.

Goodman, A. H. and J. C. Rose, 1990. Assessment of systemic physiological perturbations from dental enamel hypoplasias and associated histological structures. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 33: 59–110.

Guatelli-Steinberg, D. and J. R. Lukacs, 1999. Interpreting sex differences in enamel hypoplasia in human and non-human primates: Developmental, environmental, and cultural considerations. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 110: 73–126.

Halcrow, S. and N. Tayles, 2008. The bioarchaeological investigation of childhood and social age: Problems and prospects. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 15: 190–215.

Halcrow, S. E., N. J. Harris, N. Beavan and H. R. Buckley, 2014. First bioarchaeological evidence of probable scurvy in Southeast Asia: Multifactorial etiologies of vitamin C deficiency in a tropical environment. International Journal of Paleopathology 5: 63-71.

Halcrow, S. E. and N. Tayles, 2011. The bioarchaeological investigation of children and childhood. In Agarwal, S. C. and B. Glencross (Eds.), Social Bioarchaeology (pp. 333–360). New York: Wiley-Blackwell Press.

Hershkovitz, I., C. M. Greenwald, B. Latimer, L. M. Jellema, S. Wish-Baratz, V. Eshed, O. Dutour and B. M. Rothschild, 2002. Serpens Endocrania Symmetrica (SES): A new term and a possible clue for identifying intrathoracic disease in skeletal populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118: 201–216.

Higham, C. F. W., 1996. The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Higham, C. F. W., 2002. Early Cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia. Bangkok: River Books.

Higham, C. F. W., 2004. Mainland Southeast Asia from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. In Glover, I. and P. Bellwood (Eds.), Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History (pp. 41–67). London: Routledge Curzon.

Higham, C. F. W., 2014. From the Iron Age to Angkor: new light on the origins of a state. Antiquity 88: 822–835.

Higham, C. F. W. and F. Rispoli, 2014. The Mun Valley and Central Thailand in prehistory: integrating two cultural sequences. Open Archaeology 1: 2–28.

Higham, C. F. W. and R. Thosarat, 1994. Khok Phanom Di: Prehistoric Adaptation to the World’s Richest Habitat. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.

Higham, C. F. W. and R. Thosarat, 1998. Prehistoric Thailand: From Early Settlement to Sukhothai. Bangkok: River Books.

Higham, C. F. W. and R. Thosarat, (Eds.), 2004. The Origins of the Civilization of Angkor, Volume 1: The Excavation of Ban Lum Khao. Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department.

Higham, C. F. W. and R. Thosarat, (Eds.), 2004a. The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di: A Prehistoric Site in Central Thailand. Volume VII: Summary and Conclusions. London: The Society of Antiquaries of London.

Higham, C. F. W., J. Cameron, N. Chang, C. Castillo, S. E. Halcrow, D. O’Reilly, F. Petchey and L. Shewan, 2014. The excavation of Non Ban Jak, Northeast Thailand – a report on the first three seasons. Journal of Indo-Pacific Archaeology 34: 1–41.

Hillson, S. W., 1996. Dental anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Houghton, P. and W. Wiriyaromp, 1984. The people of Ban Na Di. In Higham, C. F. W. and A. Kijngam (Eds.), Prehistoric investigations in Northeastern Thailand (pp. 391–411). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports International Series 231.

Hummert, J. R. and D. P. Van Gerven, 1983. Skeletal growth in a Medieval population from Sudanese Nubia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60: 471–478.

Jankauskas, R. and M. Schultz, 1999. Infant diseases in Eastern Europe during the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Times. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 28: 160–161.

Janovic, A., P. Milanovic, J. Sopta, Z. Rakocevic, V. Filipovic, D. Nenezic and M. Djuric, 2012. Intracranial arteriovenous malformations as a possible cause of endocranial bone lesions and associated neurological disorder. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology: Article first published online: 4 September 2012, DOI: 10.1002/oa.2266

Jontell, M. and A. Linde, 1986. Nutritional aspects on tooth formation. World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 48: 114–136.

Katzenberg, M. A., D. A. Herring and S. R. Saunders. 1996. Weaning and infant mortality: Evaluating the skeletal evidence. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 39: 177–199.

Kijngam, A., 1984. Excavations at Ban Na Di, North East Thailand. In Bayard, D. T. (Ed.), Southeast Asia Archaeology at the XV Pacific Science Congress: The origins of agriculture, metallurgy and the state in Mainland SE Asia (pp. 36–41). Dunedin, NZ: University of Otago Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology.

King, C. L., R. A. Bentley, N. Tayles, U. S. Viðarsdóttir, G. Nowell and C. G. Macpherson, 2013. Moving peoples, changing diets: isotopic differences highlight migration and subsistence changes in the Upper Mun River Valley, Thailand. Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 1681–1688.

King, C. L., R. A. Bentley, C. Higham, N. Tayles, U. S. Viðarsdóttir, R. Layton, G. Nowell and C. G. Macpherson, 2014. Economic change after the agricultural revolution in Southeast Asia? Antiquity 68: 112–125.

Larsen, C. S., 1995. Biological changes in human populations with agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology 24: 185–213.

Larsen, C. S., 1997. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behaviour from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Larsen, C. S., R. Shavit and M. C. Griffin, 1991. Dental caries evidence for dietary change: an archaeological context. In Kelley, M. A. and C. S. Larsen (Eds.), Advances in Dental Anthropology (pp. 179-202). New York: Wiley.

Lewis, M. E., 2002. Impact of industrialization: Comparative study of child health in four sites from medieval and postmedieval England (ad 850–1859). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 119: 211-223.

Lewis, M. E., 2004. Endocranial lesions in non-adult skeletons: Understanding their aetiology. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 14: 87–97.

Lewis, M. E., 2007. The Bioarchaeology of Children: Perspectives from Biological and Forensic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lewis, M. and J. Jaskir, 1983. Infant intelligence and its relation to birth-order and birth spacing. Infant Behavior and Development 6: 117–120.

Lewis, M. E. and C. Roberts, 1997. Growing pains: the interpretation of stress indicators. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 7: 581–586.

Lukacs, J. R., 1991. Localized enamel hypoplasia of human deciduous canine teeth: Prevalence and pattern of expression in rural Pakistan. Human Biology 63: 513–522.

Lukacs, J. R., 1999. Enamel hypoplasia in deciduous teeth of great apes: Do differences in defect prevalence imply differential levels of physiological stress? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110: 351–363.

Martens, P. and L. Hall, 2000. Malaria on the move: human population movement and malaria transmission. Emerging Infectious Diseases 6: 103–109.

McCaw, M., 2007. The faunal remains: Results and conclusions. In Higham, C. F. W., A. Kijngam and S. Talbot (Eds.), The Origins of the Civilization of Angkor, vol 2: The Excavation of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao (pp. 513–536). Bangkok: Fine Arts Department.

McDonell, A. and M. F. Oxenham, 2014. Localised primary canine hypoplasia: Implications for maternal and infant health at Man Bac, Vietnam, 4000–3500 years bp. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 24: 531–539.

McKay, S., R. Farah, J. M. Broadbent, N. Tayles and S. E. Halcrow, 2013. Is it health or the burial environment: Differentiating between hypomineralised and post-mortem stained enamel in an archaeological context. PLoS ONE 8: e64573.

Mensforth, R. P., C. O. Lovejoy, J. W. Lallo and G. J. Armelagos, 1978. Part Two: The role of constitutional factors, diet, and infectious disease in the etiology of porotic hyperostosis and periosteal reactions in infants and children. Medical Anthropology 2: 1-59.

Møller-Christensen, V., 1961. Bone Changes in Leprosy. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.

Molnar, S. and I. Molnar, 1985. Observations of dental diseases among prehistoric populations of Hungary. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 67: 51–63.

Moore, E. H., 1988. Moated sites in Early North East Thailand. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

Nelsen, K. M., 1999. The Dental Health of the People from Noen U-Loke, a Prehistoric Iron Age Site in Northeast Thailand. MA thesis. Dunedin: University of Otago.

Newton, J. S., K. M. Domett, D. J. W. O’Reilly and L. Shewan, 2013. Dental health in Iron Age Cambodia: Temporal variations with rice agriculture. International Journal of Paleopathology 3: 1–10.

O’Reilly, D. J. W., 2014. Increasing complexity and the political economy model; a consideration of Iron Age moated sites in Thailand. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35: 297–309.

Ortner, D. J., 2003. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. San Diego: Academic Press.

Ortner, D. J. and W. G. J. Putschar, 1985. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Oxenham, M. F. and I. Cavill, 2010. Porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia: the erythropoietic response to iron deficiency anaemia. Anthropological Science 118: 199-200.

Oxenham, M. F., L. C. Nguyen and K. T. Nguyen, 2006. The oral health consequences of the adoption and intensification of agriculture in Southeast Asia. In Oxenham, M. F. and N. Tayles (Eds.), Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia (pp. 263-289). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pelletier, D. L., E. A. Frongillo, D. G. Schroeder and J. P. Habicht, 1995. The effects of malnutrition on child mortality in developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 73: 443-448.

Petney, T. N., 2001. Environmental, cultural and social changes and their influence on parasite infections. International Journal of Parasitology 31: 919-932.

Pietrusewsky, M., 1974. Non Nok Tha: The human skeletal remains from the 1966 excavations at Non Nok Tha, Northeastern Thailand. Dunedin: University of Otago.

Pietrusewsky, M., 1974a. The palaeodemography of a prehistoric Thai population: Non Nok Tha. Asian Perspectives 17: 125-140.

Pietrusewsky, M., 1978. A study of early Metal Age crania from Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand. Journal of Human Evolution 7: 383-392.

Pietrusewsky, M., 1982. The ancient inhabitants of Ban Chiang: the evidence from the human skeletal and dental remains. Expedition 24 (4): 42-50.

Pietrusewsky, M., 1984. Pioneers of the Khorat Plateau: the prehistoric inhabitants from Ban Chiang. Journal of the Hong Kong Archaeological Society 10: 90-106.

Pietrusewsky, M., 2006. A multivariate craniometric study of the prehistoric and modern inhabitants of Southeast Asia, East Asia and surrounding regions: a human kaleidoscope? In Oxenham, M. F. and N. Tayles (Eds.), Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia (pp. 59-90). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pietrusewsky, M. and M. T. Douglas, 2002. Ban Chiang, A Prehistoric Village Site In Northeast Thailand I: The Human Skeletal Remains. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

Pietrusewsky, M. and M. T. Douglas, 2002a. Intensification of agriculture at Ban Chiang: Is there evidence from the skeletons? Asian Perspectives 40: 157–178.

Pinhasi, R. and J. T. Stock, 2011. Human Bioarchaeology of the Transition to Agriculture. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Pureepatpong, N., 2001. A preliminary report of an analysis of human skeletal remains from Muang Sema, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Northeast Thailand (in Thai). Unpublished manuscript. Phimai, Nakhon Ratchasima: 12th Regional Office of the Fine Arts Department.

Quinlan, R. J., 2007. Human parental effort and environmental risk. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274: 121–125.

Ribot, I. and C. Roberts, 1996. A study of non-specific stress indicators and skeletal growth in two mediaeval subadult populations. Journal of Archaeological Science 23: 67-79.

Roberts, C. and K. Manchester, 1997. The Archaeology of Disease. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Roberts, C. and M. Cox, 2003. Health and Disease in BritaIn From Prehistory to the Present Day. Thrupp, Oxfordshire: Sutton Publishing Limited.

Rosenblum, L. A. and M. Lewis, 1981. The social world of the infant. Contemporary Psychology 26: 724.

Sarnat, B. G. and I. Schour, 1941. Enamel hypoplasia (chronologic enamel aplasia) in relation to systemic disease: a chronologic, morphologic and etiologic classification. Journal of the American Dental Association 28: 1989–2000.

Schultz, M., 1984. The diseases in a series of children’s skeletons from Ikiz Tepe, Turkey. In Capecchi, V. and M. Rabino, E. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, Siena, Italy (pp. 321–325). Siena: Tipografia Senese.

Rabino, E., 1989. Causes and frequency of diseases during early childhood in Bronze Age populations. In Capasso, L. L. (Ed.), Advances in Palaeopathology (pp. 175–179). Chieti, Italy: Solfanelli Editore.

Rabino, E., 1993. Initial stages of systemic bone disease. In Grupe, G. and A. N. Garland (Eds.), Histology of Ancient Human Bone: Methods and Diagnosis (pp. 185-203). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Rabino, E., 1997. Microscopic investigation of excavated skeletal remains: a contribution to paleopathology and forensic medicine. In Haglund, W. D. and M. H. Sorg (Eds.), Forensic Taphonomy. The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains (pp. 201-222). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Rabino, E., 2001. Paleohistopathology of bone: A new approach to the study of ancient diseases. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 116: 106-147.

Schultz, M. and C. S. Larsen, 1997. Porotic hyperostosis in Spanish Florida: Nature and etiology of a frequently observed phenomenon. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 24: 206.

Scrimshaw, N. S., C. E. Taylor and J. E. Gordon, 1959. Interactions of nutrition and infection. The American Journal of Medical Sciences 273: 367-403.

Sellen, D. W. and D. B. Smay, 1999. Relationship between subsistence and age at weaning in ‘preindustrial’ societies. Human Nature 12: 47-87.

Seow, K. W., 1992. Dental enamel defects in low birthweight children. In Goodman, A. H. and L. Capasso (Eds.), Recent Contributions to the Study of Enamel Developmental Defects (pp. 321–330). Chieti, Italy: Journal of Paleopathology Monograph Publications.

Skinner, M. F., 1986. An enigmatic hypoplastic defect of the deciduous canine. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 69: 59-69.

Skinner, M. F. and J. T. W. Hung, 1986. Localised enamel hypoplasia of the primary canine. Journal of Dentistry for Children 53: 197-200.

Skinner, M. F. and J. T. W. Hung, 1989. Social and biological correlates of localized enamel hypoplasia of the human deciduous canine tooth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79: 159-175.

Skinner, M. F. and E. A. Newell, 2003. Localized hypoplasia of the primary canine in Bonobos, Orangutans, and Gibbons. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 120: 61-72.

Skinner, M. F., A. T. Rodrigues and C. Byra, 2014. Developing a pig model for crypt fenestration-induced localized hypoplastic enamel defects in humans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 154: 239-250.

Steckel, R. H. and J. C. Rose (Eds.), 2002. The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Steinbock, R. T., 1976. Paleopathological Diagnoses and Interpretation: Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations. Springfield, IL: Thomas.

Strohm, T. F. and K. W. Alt., 1998. Periodontal disease-etiology, classification and diagnosis. In Alt, K. W., F. W. Rösing and M. Teschler-Nicola (Eds.), Dental Anthropology: Fundamentals, Limits and Prospects (pp. 227-246). New York: Springer-Verlag/Wien.

Stuart-Macadam, P. L., 1991. Anemia in Roman Britain: Poundbury camp. In Bush, H. and M. Zvelebil (Eds.), Health in Past Societies: Biocultural Interpretations of Human Skeletal Remains in Archaeological Contexts (pp. 101-113). Oxford: Tempvs Peparatvm: Archaeological and Historical Associates Limited.

Stuart-Macadam, P. L., 1992. Porotic hyperostosis: A new perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87: 39-47.

Tayles, N, 1996. Anemia, genetic diseases, and malaria in prehistoric mainland Southeast Asia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 101: 11-27.

Tayles, N, 1999. The excavation of Khok Phanom Di: a prehistoric site in Central Thailand. Vol. V. The people. London: The Society of Antiquaries of London, Research Report L.

Tayles, N. and H. R. Buckley, 2004. Leprosy and tuberculosis in Iron Age Southeast Asia? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 125: 239–256.

Tayles, N., K. Domett and S. E. Halcrow, 2009. Can dental caries be interpreted as evidence of farming? The Asian experience. Frontiers of Oral Biology 13: 162–166.

Tayles, N., K. Domett and K. Nelsen, 2000. Agriculture and dental caries? The case of rice in prehistoric Southeast Asia. World Archaeology 32: 68–83.

Tayles, N., S. E. Halcrow and K. Domett, 2007. The people of Noen U-Loke. In Higham, C. F. W., A. Kijngam and S. Talbot (Eds.), The Origins of the Civilization of Angkor, Volume 2: The Excavation of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao (pp. 243–304). Bangkok: Fine Arts Department.

Temple, D. H. and C. S. Larsen, 2007. Dental caries prevalence as evidence for agriculture and subsistence variation during the Yayoi period in prehistoric Japan: Biocultural interpretations of an economy in transition. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134: 501–512.

Teschler-Nicola, M., F. Gerold and W. Prodinger, 1998. Endocranial features in tuberculosis. In Proceedings of the VIIth European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, 1998 Italy. SPA Teramo, 92.

Thompson, G. B., 1996. The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di, a Prehistoric Site in Central Thailand. Vol. IV. The Botanical Remains. London: Society of Antiquaries of London, Research Report LIII.

Turner, C. G. I., 1979. Dental anthropological indications of agriculture among the Jomon people of central Japan. X. Peopling of the Pacific. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51: 619–636.

Vincent, B. A., 2004. The Excavation of Khok Phanom Di, a Prehistoric Site in Central Thailand, Vol. IV. The Material Culture (Part II). London: Society of Antiquaries of London, Research Report LXX.

Waldron, T., 2007. Palaeoepidemiology: the Epidemiology of Human Remains. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press.

Walker, P. L., 1986. Porotic hyperostosis in a marine-dependent Californian Indian population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 69: 345–354.

Walker, P. L., R. R. Bathurst, R. Richman, T. Gjerdrum and V. A. Andrushko, 2009. The causes of porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia: A reappraisal of the iron-deficiency-anemia hypothesis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139: 109–125.

Wapler, U., E. Crubezy and M. Schultz, 2004. Is cribra orbitalia synonymous with anaemia? Analysis and interpretation of cranial pathology in Sudan. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123: 333–339.

Webb, S., 1982. Cribra orbitalia: a possible sign of anaemia in pre- and post-contact crania from Australia and Papua New Guinea. Archaeology in Oceania 17: 148–156.

Weinberg, E. D., 1992. Iron withholding in prevention of disease. In Stuart-Macadam, P. and S. Kent (Eds.), Diet, Demography and Disease (pp. 105-150). New York: Aldine De Gruyter.

Weiss, K. M., 1973. Demographic models for anthropology. American Antiquity 38: 1-88.

Welch, D. J. and McNeill J. R., 1991. Settlement, agriculture and population changes in the Phimai region, Thailand. Bulletin of the Indo-Pac Prehistory Association 11: 210-228.

White, J. C., 1986. A Revision of the Chronology of Ban Chiang and its Implications for the Prehistory of Northeast Thailand. PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania, United States of America.

White, J. C., 1997. A brief note on new dates for the Ban Chiang cultural tradition. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Pre-history Association 16: 103-106.

White, J. C., D. Penny, L. Kealhofer and B. Maloney, 2004. Vegetation changes from the late Pleistocene through the Holocene from three areas of archaeological significance in Thailand. Quaternary International 113: 111-132.

Whittington, S. L., 1992. Enamel hypoplasia in the low status Maya population of Prehispanic Copan, Honduras. In Goodman, A. H. and L. L. Capasso (Eds.), Recent Contributions to the Study of Enamel Developmental Defects (pp. 185–205). Chieti, Italy: Associazione Anthropologica Abruzzese.

WHO., 1996. The World Health Report 1996: Fighting Disease, Fostering Development. Geneva.

Willis, A. and M. F. Oxenham, 2013. The Neolithic demographic transition and oral health: The Southeast Asian experience. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 152: 197-208.

Wohlfarth, B., W. Klubseang, S. Inthongkaew, S. C. Fritz, M. Blaauw, P. J. Reimer, A. Chabangborn, L. Löwemark and S. Chawchai, 2012. Holocene environmental changes in northeast Thailand as reconstructed from a tropical wetland. Global and Planetary Change 92-93: 148-161.

Downloads