Deadly Missiles or Delicious Morsels?
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Abstract
Exposure to substances in the environment and foods and their relationship to various human diseases have interested scientists and others for many years. It is often difficult to establish a linkage between exposure to substances and human disease on account of the low concentrations of the chemicals of interest in the environment. These materials may be in the general working environment or in food items. It is the later group that we investigate here. Our primary interest is with the intake of nitrates/ nitrites and amines for when these are simultaneously present in the body powerful carcinogenic nitrosamines are generated. We look at the foods in which they are often found and draw on this information to reflect on some statements made by Ellen White more than 100 years ago warning of the dangers apparently inherent in eating certain food items.
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References
Lijinsky, W. & Epstein, S. S. 1970. Nitrosamines as environmental carcinogens. Nature (London) 225:21-23.
Newberne, P. 1979. Nitrite promotes lymphoma incidence in rats. Science 204:1079-1081.
Jay, J. J. 1998. Modern Food Microbiology, fifth edition. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Aspen Publishers, Inc., pp. 279-285; Campbell, T. C. and Campbell, T. M. 2006. The China Study. Dallas, Texas: Benbella Books, p. 46.
Vegh, E., Agocs, M. & Csanady, M. 1997.
Methaemoglobinemia among children =<1 year of age, Hungary, 1987-1995. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 50 (supplement 1):14S-14S (1); Water Sanitation and Health (WSH) World Health Organization. Online: http://who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/ methaemoglob/en/ (24/10/2006).
Knight T.M., Forman, D., Al-Dabbagh, S.A. and Doll R. 1987. Estimation of dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite in Great Britain. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 25 (4):277-285.
Water Sanitation and Health (WSH) World Health Organization. Online: http://who.int/water_sanitation_ health/diseases/methaemoglob/en/ (24/10/2006); Finan, A., Keenan, F., O’Donovan, P. M. and Murphy, J. 1998. Methaemoglobinaemia associated with sodium nitrite in three siblings. British Medical Journal 317:1138-1139.
McCabe, B. J. 1986. Dietary tyramine and other precursor aminies in MAOI regimes: a review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 86:1059-1064.
Sumner, S. S., Speckhard, M. W., Somers, E. B. and Taylor, S. L. 1985. Isolation of histamine-producing Lactobacillus buchneri from Swiss cheese implicated in a food poisoning outbreak. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 50(4):1094-1096; Stratton, J. E., Hutkins, R. W. & Taylor, S. L. 1991. Biogenic amines in cheese and fermented foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection 54:460-470; Marino, M., Maifreni, M., Moret, S. & Rondinini, G. 2000. The capacity of Enterobacteriaceae species to produce biogenic amines in cheese. Letters in Applied Microbiology 31(2):169.
Baker Glen B., Wong James T.F., Coutts Ronald T. and Pasutto Franco M. 1987. Simultaneous extraction and quantitation of several bioactive amines in cheese and chocolate. Journal of Chromatography, 392: 317-331; Premont, R. T., Gainetdinov, R. R. and Caron, M. G. 2001. Following the trace of elusive amines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 98 (17):9474-9475.
Ochiai Masako, Wakabayashi Keiji, Nagao Minako and Sugimura Takashi (1984) Tyramine is a major mutagen precursor in soy sauce, being convertible to a mutagen by nitrite. Gann 75, 1-3; Li M-H., Ji C. and Cheng S-J. (1986) Occurrence of nitroso compounds in fungi-contaminated foods: a review. Nutrition and Cancer, 8:63-69.
Scanlan, R. A. 2000. Nitrosamines and cancer. The Linus Pauling Institute. Online: http://lpi.oregonstate. edu/f-w00/nitrosamine.html (02/11/2006).
Klein-Szanto, A. J., Iizasa, T., Momiki, S., Garcia-Palazzo, I., Caamamo, J., Metcalf, R., Welsh, J. and Harris, C. C. 1992. A tobacco-specific N-nitrosamine or cigarette smoke condensate causes neoplastic transformation of xenotransplanted human bronchial epithelial cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, vol. 89, no. 15:6693-6697; Wynder, E. L. and Muscat, J. E. 1995. The changing epidemiology of smoking and lung cancer histology. Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 103, suppl. 8:143-148; Hecht, S. S. 2003. Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer. Nature Reviews Cancer, vol. 3:733-744.
Fine D.H., Challis, B.C., Hartman P. and Van Ryzin J. 1982. Endogenous synthesis of volatile nitrosamines: model calculations and risk assessment. IARC ScientificPublications 41, 379-396; Hartman P.E. 1983. Review: Putative mutagens and carcinogens in food. 1. Nitrate/Nitrite ingestion and gastric cancer mortality. Environmental Mutagenesis 5:111-121; Pobel, D., Riboli, E., Cornée, J., Hémon, B. and Guyander, M. 1994. Nitrosamine, nitrate, nitrite in relation to gastric cancer: A case-control study in Marseille, France. European Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 11, no. 1:67-73; Rogers, M. A., Vaughan, T. L., Davis, S. and Thomas, D. B. 1995. Consumption of nitrate, nitrite, and nitrosodimethylamine and the risk of upper aerodigestive tract cancer. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 4, issue 1:29-36.
Mosier, A. R., Syers, J. K. and Freney, J. R. 2004. Nitrogen fertilizer: an essential component of increased food, feed and fibre production, pp. 3-18. In: Agriculture and Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer, Eds. A. R. Mosier, J. K. Syers and J. R. Freney. Washington: Island Press.
Lu, S. H., Chui, S. X., Yang, W. X., Hu, X. N., Guo, L. P. & Li, F. M. 1991. Relevance of N-nitrosamines to oesophageal cancer in China. IARC Scientific Publications 105:11-17.
Cheng, K. K., Day, N. E., Duffy, S. W., Lam, T. H., Fok, M. and Wong, J. 1992. Pickled vegetables in the aetiology of oesophageal cancer in Hong Kong Chinese. Lancet 339 (8805):1314-1318; Abnet, C. C. 2007. Carcinogenic food contaminants. Cancer Investigation 25:189-196.
Straif, K., Weiland, S. K., Bungers, M., Holthenrich, D., Taeger, D., Yi, S. & Keil, U. 2000. Exposure to high concentrations of nitrosamines and cancer mortality among a cohort of rubber workers. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 57:180-187.
Feldman, J. M. 1983. Histaminuria from histamine-rich foods. Archives of Internal Medicine 143(11):20992102; Chin, K. W., Garriga, M. M. & Metcalfe, D. D. 1989. The histamine content of oriental foods. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 27 (5):83-287; Stratton, J.E., Hutkins, R.W., Taylor, S.L. (1991). Biogenic amines in cheese and other fermented foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection 54:460 470; Durlu-Özkaya, F. 2002. Biogenic amine content of some Turkish cheeses. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 26(4):259265; Larsson, S. C., Bergkvist, L. and Wolk, A. 2006. Processed meat consumption, dietary nitrosamines and stomach cancer risk in a cohort of Swedish women. International Journal of Cancer, vol. 119, no. 4:915-919.
nnocente, N. & D’Agostin, P. 2002. Formation of biogenic amines in a typical semihard Italian cheese. Food Protection 65(9):1498-1501.
Forman, D. 2004. Commentary: nitrites, nitrates and nitrosation as causes of brain cancer in children: epidemiological challenges. International Journal of Epidemiology, vol 33, no. 6:1216-1218.
Klein, D., Keshavarz, A., Lafont, P., Hardy, J. and Debry, G. 1980. [Formation of nitrosamines in cheese products.] Annales de la nutrition et de l’alimentation, vol. 34, nos 5-6:1077-1088; Domanska, K. and Kowalshi, B. 2002. Effect of different storage conditions on N-nitrosamine content in Polish edible offals processed meat products. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy, vol. 46:317-324; Jakszyn, P. et al. 2006. Intake and food sources of nitrites and N-nitrosodimethylamine in Spain. Public Health Nutrition, vol. 9:785-791; Larsson, S. C., Bergkvist, L. and Wolk, A. 2006. Processed meat consumption, dietary nitrosamines and stomach cancer risk in a cohort of Swedish women. International Journal of Cancer, vol. 119, no. 4:915-919; Abnet, C. C. 2007. Carcinogenic food contaminants. Cancer Investigation vol. 25:189196.
White, E. G. Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, pp. 67, 68.
Lopez-Diaz, T. M., Roman-Blanco, C., Garcia-Arias, M. T., Garcia-Fernandez, M. C. and Garcia-Lopez, M. L. 1996. Mycotoxins in two Spanish cheese varieties. International Journal of Food Microbiology 30:391-395; Vázquez, B. I., Fente, C., Franco, C. M. Vazquez, M. J. and Cepeda, A. 2001. Inhibitory effects of eugenol and thymol on Penicillium citrinum strains in culture media and cheese. International Journal of Food Microbiology 67(1-2):157-163; Richard, J. L. and Arp, L. H. 2004. Natural occurrence of the mycotoxin penitrem A in moldy cream cheese. Mycopathologia 67:107-109.
White, E. G. 1942. The Ministry of Healing. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, p. 302 and CD at 386.5 (Online: www.whiteestate.org/ search/search.asp).
White, A. L. 1982. Ellen G. White. The Later Elmshaven Years 1905-1915, vol. 6. Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association p. 315.
White, E. G. 1948. Testimonies for the Church, vol. 9. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, p.162; White, A. L. 1986. Ellen G. White. The Progressive Years 1862-1876, vol. 2. Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association pp. 304-305.
Forsythe, S. J. 2000. The Microbiology of Safe Food. London: Blackwell Science Ltd., pp. 154, 171.
Asatoor, A.M., Levi A.J. and Milne M.D 1963. Tranylcypromine and cheese. Lancet October 5, 2:733-734; Blackwell B. and Mabbitt, L.A. 1965. Tyramine in cheese related to hypertensive crises after monoamineoxidase inhibition. Lancet, May 1, 62:938-940.
White, E. G. 1946. Counsels on Diet and Foods. Takoma Park, Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, p. 369.
Vedamuthu, E. R., Sandine, W. E. and Elliker, P. R. 1966. Flavor and texture in Cheddar cheese. I. Role of mixed strain lactic starter cultures. Journal of Dairy Science 49(2):144-150; Valsamaki, K., Michaelidou, A. and Polychroniadou, A. 2000. Biogenic amine production in Feta cheese. Food Chemistry. 71(2):259-266.
Voigt M.N., Eitenmiller R.R., Koehler P.E. and Hamdy M.K. (1974) Tyramine, histamine and trytamine content of cheese. Journal of Milk and Food Technology, 37(7): 377-381; El-Zayat A.I. (1986) Tryptamine, tyramine and histamine content of Domiati, Ras and Roquefort cheese. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Hygiene, 32 (7), 410-411; Galgano, F., Suzzi, G., Favati, F., Caruso, M., Martuscelli, M., Gardini, F. and Salzano, G. 2001. Biogenic amines during ripening in ‘Semicotto Caprino’ cheese: role of enterococci. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 36:153-160.
Novella-Rodriguez, S., Veciana-Nogues, M. T., Roig-Sagues, A. X., Trujillo-Mesa, A. J., Vidal-Carou, M. C. 2004. Evaluation of biogenic amines and microbial counts throughout the ripening goat cheeses from pasteurized and raw milk. Journal of Dairy Research 71 (2):245-252.
White, E. G. 1948. Counsels to Parents, Teachers and Students. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, p. 300.
White, E. G. 1946. Counsels on Diet and Foods. Takoma Park, Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, p. 357.
White, E. G. 1946. Counsels on Diet and Foods. Takoma Park, Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, pp. 345, 349, 368.
Shipton, W. A. 2007. Clear Minds in Healthy Bodies. Muak Lek: Institute Press.
Newberne, P. 1979. Nitrite promotes lymphoma incidence in rats. Science 204:1079-1081.
Jay, J. J. 1998. Modern Food Microbiology, fifth edition. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Aspen Publishers, Inc., pp. 279-285; Campbell, T. C. and Campbell, T. M. 2006. The China Study. Dallas, Texas: Benbella Books, p. 46.
Vegh, E., Agocs, M. & Csanady, M. 1997.
Methaemoglobinemia among children =<1 year of age, Hungary, 1987-1995. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 50 (supplement 1):14S-14S (1); Water Sanitation and Health (WSH) World Health Organization. Online: http://who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/ methaemoglob/en/ (24/10/2006).
Knight T.M., Forman, D., Al-Dabbagh, S.A. and Doll R. 1987. Estimation of dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite in Great Britain. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 25 (4):277-285.
Water Sanitation and Health (WSH) World Health Organization. Online: http://who.int/water_sanitation_ health/diseases/methaemoglob/en/ (24/10/2006); Finan, A., Keenan, F., O’Donovan, P. M. and Murphy, J. 1998. Methaemoglobinaemia associated with sodium nitrite in three siblings. British Medical Journal 317:1138-1139.
McCabe, B. J. 1986. Dietary tyramine and other precursor aminies in MAOI regimes: a review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 86:1059-1064.
Sumner, S. S., Speckhard, M. W., Somers, E. B. and Taylor, S. L. 1985. Isolation of histamine-producing Lactobacillus buchneri from Swiss cheese implicated in a food poisoning outbreak. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 50(4):1094-1096; Stratton, J. E., Hutkins, R. W. & Taylor, S. L. 1991. Biogenic amines in cheese and fermented foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection 54:460-470; Marino, M., Maifreni, M., Moret, S. & Rondinini, G. 2000. The capacity of Enterobacteriaceae species to produce biogenic amines in cheese. Letters in Applied Microbiology 31(2):169.
Baker Glen B., Wong James T.F., Coutts Ronald T. and Pasutto Franco M. 1987. Simultaneous extraction and quantitation of several bioactive amines in cheese and chocolate. Journal of Chromatography, 392: 317-331; Premont, R. T., Gainetdinov, R. R. and Caron, M. G. 2001. Following the trace of elusive amines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 98 (17):9474-9475.
Ochiai Masako, Wakabayashi Keiji, Nagao Minako and Sugimura Takashi (1984) Tyramine is a major mutagen precursor in soy sauce, being convertible to a mutagen by nitrite. Gann 75, 1-3; Li M-H., Ji C. and Cheng S-J. (1986) Occurrence of nitroso compounds in fungi-contaminated foods: a review. Nutrition and Cancer, 8:63-69.
Scanlan, R. A. 2000. Nitrosamines and cancer. The Linus Pauling Institute. Online: http://lpi.oregonstate. edu/f-w00/nitrosamine.html (02/11/2006).
Klein-Szanto, A. J., Iizasa, T., Momiki, S., Garcia-Palazzo, I., Caamamo, J., Metcalf, R., Welsh, J. and Harris, C. C. 1992. A tobacco-specific N-nitrosamine or cigarette smoke condensate causes neoplastic transformation of xenotransplanted human bronchial epithelial cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, vol. 89, no. 15:6693-6697; Wynder, E. L. and Muscat, J. E. 1995. The changing epidemiology of smoking and lung cancer histology. Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 103, suppl. 8:143-148; Hecht, S. S. 2003. Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer. Nature Reviews Cancer, vol. 3:733-744.
Fine D.H., Challis, B.C., Hartman P. and Van Ryzin J. 1982. Endogenous synthesis of volatile nitrosamines: model calculations and risk assessment. IARC ScientificPublications 41, 379-396; Hartman P.E. 1983. Review: Putative mutagens and carcinogens in food. 1. Nitrate/Nitrite ingestion and gastric cancer mortality. Environmental Mutagenesis 5:111-121; Pobel, D., Riboli, E., Cornée, J., Hémon, B. and Guyander, M. 1994. Nitrosamine, nitrate, nitrite in relation to gastric cancer: A case-control study in Marseille, France. European Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 11, no. 1:67-73; Rogers, M. A., Vaughan, T. L., Davis, S. and Thomas, D. B. 1995. Consumption of nitrate, nitrite, and nitrosodimethylamine and the risk of upper aerodigestive tract cancer. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 4, issue 1:29-36.
Mosier, A. R., Syers, J. K. and Freney, J. R. 2004. Nitrogen fertilizer: an essential component of increased food, feed and fibre production, pp. 3-18. In: Agriculture and Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer, Eds. A. R. Mosier, J. K. Syers and J. R. Freney. Washington: Island Press.
Lu, S. H., Chui, S. X., Yang, W. X., Hu, X. N., Guo, L. P. & Li, F. M. 1991. Relevance of N-nitrosamines to oesophageal cancer in China. IARC Scientific Publications 105:11-17.
Cheng, K. K., Day, N. E., Duffy, S. W., Lam, T. H., Fok, M. and Wong, J. 1992. Pickled vegetables in the aetiology of oesophageal cancer in Hong Kong Chinese. Lancet 339 (8805):1314-1318; Abnet, C. C. 2007. Carcinogenic food contaminants. Cancer Investigation 25:189-196.
Straif, K., Weiland, S. K., Bungers, M., Holthenrich, D., Taeger, D., Yi, S. & Keil, U. 2000. Exposure to high concentrations of nitrosamines and cancer mortality among a cohort of rubber workers. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 57:180-187.
Feldman, J. M. 1983. Histaminuria from histamine-rich foods. Archives of Internal Medicine 143(11):20992102; Chin, K. W., Garriga, M. M. & Metcalfe, D. D. 1989. The histamine content of oriental foods. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 27 (5):83-287; Stratton, J.E., Hutkins, R.W., Taylor, S.L. (1991). Biogenic amines in cheese and other fermented foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection 54:460 470; Durlu-Özkaya, F. 2002. Biogenic amine content of some Turkish cheeses. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 26(4):259265; Larsson, S. C., Bergkvist, L. and Wolk, A. 2006. Processed meat consumption, dietary nitrosamines and stomach cancer risk in a cohort of Swedish women. International Journal of Cancer, vol. 119, no. 4:915-919.
nnocente, N. & D’Agostin, P. 2002. Formation of biogenic amines in a typical semihard Italian cheese. Food Protection 65(9):1498-1501.
Forman, D. 2004. Commentary: nitrites, nitrates and nitrosation as causes of brain cancer in children: epidemiological challenges. International Journal of Epidemiology, vol 33, no. 6:1216-1218.
Klein, D., Keshavarz, A., Lafont, P., Hardy, J. and Debry, G. 1980. [Formation of nitrosamines in cheese products.] Annales de la nutrition et de l’alimentation, vol. 34, nos 5-6:1077-1088; Domanska, K. and Kowalshi, B. 2002. Effect of different storage conditions on N-nitrosamine content in Polish edible offals processed meat products. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy, vol. 46:317-324; Jakszyn, P. et al. 2006. Intake and food sources of nitrites and N-nitrosodimethylamine in Spain. Public Health Nutrition, vol. 9:785-791; Larsson, S. C., Bergkvist, L. and Wolk, A. 2006. Processed meat consumption, dietary nitrosamines and stomach cancer risk in a cohort of Swedish women. International Journal of Cancer, vol. 119, no. 4:915-919; Abnet, C. C. 2007. Carcinogenic food contaminants. Cancer Investigation vol. 25:189196.
White, E. G. Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, pp. 67, 68.
Lopez-Diaz, T. M., Roman-Blanco, C., Garcia-Arias, M. T., Garcia-Fernandez, M. C. and Garcia-Lopez, M. L. 1996. Mycotoxins in two Spanish cheese varieties. International Journal of Food Microbiology 30:391-395; Vázquez, B. I., Fente, C., Franco, C. M. Vazquez, M. J. and Cepeda, A. 2001. Inhibitory effects of eugenol and thymol on Penicillium citrinum strains in culture media and cheese. International Journal of Food Microbiology 67(1-2):157-163; Richard, J. L. and Arp, L. H. 2004. Natural occurrence of the mycotoxin penitrem A in moldy cream cheese. Mycopathologia 67:107-109.
White, E. G. 1942. The Ministry of Healing. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, p. 302 and CD at 386.5 (Online: www.whiteestate.org/ search/search.asp).
White, A. L. 1982. Ellen G. White. The Later Elmshaven Years 1905-1915, vol. 6. Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association p. 315.
White, E. G. 1948. Testimonies for the Church, vol. 9. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, p.162; White, A. L. 1986. Ellen G. White. The Progressive Years 1862-1876, vol. 2. Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association pp. 304-305.
Forsythe, S. J. 2000. The Microbiology of Safe Food. London: Blackwell Science Ltd., pp. 154, 171.
Asatoor, A.M., Levi A.J. and Milne M.D 1963. Tranylcypromine and cheese. Lancet October 5, 2:733-734; Blackwell B. and Mabbitt, L.A. 1965. Tyramine in cheese related to hypertensive crises after monoamineoxidase inhibition. Lancet, May 1, 62:938-940.
White, E. G. 1946. Counsels on Diet and Foods. Takoma Park, Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, p. 369.
Vedamuthu, E. R., Sandine, W. E. and Elliker, P. R. 1966. Flavor and texture in Cheddar cheese. I. Role of mixed strain lactic starter cultures. Journal of Dairy Science 49(2):144-150; Valsamaki, K., Michaelidou, A. and Polychroniadou, A. 2000. Biogenic amine production in Feta cheese. Food Chemistry. 71(2):259-266.
Voigt M.N., Eitenmiller R.R., Koehler P.E. and Hamdy M.K. (1974) Tyramine, histamine and trytamine content of cheese. Journal of Milk and Food Technology, 37(7): 377-381; El-Zayat A.I. (1986) Tryptamine, tyramine and histamine content of Domiati, Ras and Roquefort cheese. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Hygiene, 32 (7), 410-411; Galgano, F., Suzzi, G., Favati, F., Caruso, M., Martuscelli, M., Gardini, F. and Salzano, G. 2001. Biogenic amines during ripening in ‘Semicotto Caprino’ cheese: role of enterococci. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 36:153-160.
Novella-Rodriguez, S., Veciana-Nogues, M. T., Roig-Sagues, A. X., Trujillo-Mesa, A. J., Vidal-Carou, M. C. 2004. Evaluation of biogenic amines and microbial counts throughout the ripening goat cheeses from pasteurized and raw milk. Journal of Dairy Research 71 (2):245-252.
White, E. G. 1948. Counsels to Parents, Teachers and Students. Mountain View, California: Pacific Press Publishing Association, p. 300.
White, E. G. 1946. Counsels on Diet and Foods. Takoma Park, Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, p. 357.
White, E. G. 1946. Counsels on Diet and Foods. Takoma Park, Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, pp. 345, 349, 368.
Shipton, W. A. 2007. Clear Minds in Healthy Bodies. Muak Lek: Institute Press.