Demographic Factors Influencing Tolerance towards LGBT Individuals among Malaysians

Main Article Content

Hsin Nie Ling
Su Hie Ting

Abstract

This study examined the influence of demographic characteristics on tolerance towards LGBT in Malaysia. The specific aspects studied were: (1) views on LGBT sexual orientation; (2) views on rights of LGBT individuals; and (3) relationships between demographic characteristics and views on LGBT sexual orientation and rights. Questionnaire data were collected from 413 respondents living in Malaysia (88.1% heterosexuals; 11.9% LGBT). A majority of respondents were degree holders (82.8%) in their twenties (82.3%) and of Chinese descent (71.7%). The results showed moderate tolerance towards LGBT sexual orientation where some respondents felt that heterosexuality is best because of religion and morality, while others believed that people are born with LGBT tendencies and need not keep their sexual orientation a secret. Interestingly, the respondents were receptive towards LGBT rights, including the right to organise public events, adopt a child, and have same-sex marriage. ANOVA results showed that age, ethnic group, religious background, and sexual orientation influenced tolerance towards LGBT sexual orientation and rights. Older individuals, Malay and Sabah indigenous, Muslims, Christians, and heterosexuals seemed to be the least supportive of LGBT. The study suggests that openness towards LGBT is growing among the younger generation.

Article Details

Section
Research Articles

References

Abdullah, Z., & Amat, S. (2019). Understanding about LGBT among students in a public higher learning institution. Bisma: The Journal of Counseling, 3(2), 46–57.

Adamczyk, A. (2017). Cross-national public opinion about homosexuality: Examining attitudes across the globe. University of California Press.

Antoszewski, B., Kasielska, A., Jędrzejczak, M., & Kruk-Jeromin, J. (2007). Knowledge of and attitude toward transsexualism among college students. Sexuality and Disability, 25(1), 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11195-006-9029-1

Arli, D., Badejo, A., & Sutanto, N. (2019). Exploring the effect of intrinsic religiousness, extrinsic religiousness, and religious fundamentalism on people’s attitude towards lesbians and gays in Indonesia. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 32(2), 118–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/15528030.2019.1640830

Arat, Z. F. K., & Nuňez, C. (2017). Advancing LGBT rights in Turkey: Tolerance or protection? Human Rights Review, 18(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12142-016-0439-x

Astuti, D. A., & Kurniati, N. (2018). Factors influencing stigma to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) among teenagers at Ngaran Village, Gamping, Sleman, Indonesia. GHMJ (Global Health Management Journal), 2(2), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.35898/ghmj-22192

Bertram, D. (2007). Likert scales: CPSC 681–Topic Report. Poincare. http://poincare.matf.bg.ac.rs/~kristina/ topic-dane-likert.pdf

Bidell, M. K. (2005). The sexual orientation counselor competency scale: Assessing attitudes, skills and knowledge of counselors working with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. Counselor Education and Supervision, 44(4), 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2005.tb01755.x

Cheah, W. H., & Singaravelu, H. (2017). The coming-out process of gay and lesbian individuals from Islamic Malaysia: Communication strategies and motivations. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 46(5), 401–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2017.1362460

Copp, H. L., & Koehler, W. J. (2017). Peer attitudes toward LGBT-identified university students as mediated by demographic factors. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 21(4), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 19359705.2017.1320697

Eliason, M. J. (1997). The prevalence and nature of biphobia in heterosexual undergraduate students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26(3), 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024527032040

Felix, M. S. (2014). Stigma as part of identity development of gay men in Penang—A qualitative study. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 22(3), 365–377.

Flores, A. R. (2019). Social acceptance of LGBT people in 174 countries: 1981–2017. Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law. https://williamsinstitue.law.ucla.edu/publications/global-acceptance-index-lgbt/

Foong, A. L. S., Liow, J. W., Nalliah, S., Low, W. Y., Samy, A. L., & Khalaf, Z. F. (2019). Attitudes of future doctors towards LGBT patients in conservative Malaysian society. Sexuality & Culture, 24(5), 1358–1375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-019-09685-5

Friedman, M. R., Dodge, B., Schick, V., Herbenick, D., Hubach, R. D., Bowling, J., Goncalves, G., Krier, S., & Reece, M. (2014). From bias to bisexual health disparities: Attitudes toward bisexual men and women in the United States. LGBT Health, 1(4), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2014.0005

Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2009). State-level policies and psychiatric morbidity in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. American Journal of Public Health, 99(12), 2275–2281. https://doi.org/10. 2105/AJPH.2008.153510

Hegarty, P., & Pratto, F. (2001). Sexual orientation beliefs: Their relationship to anti-gay attitudes and biological determinist arguments. Journal of Homosexuality, 41(1), 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v41n01_04

Helms, J. L., & Waters, A. M. (2016). Attitudes toward bisexual men and women. Journal of Bisexuality, 16(4), 454–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2016.1242104

Herek, G. M. (1988). Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: Correlates and gender differences. Journal of Sex Research, 25(4), 451–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498809551476

Herek, G. M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66(1), 40–66. https://doi.org/10.1086/338409

Herek, G. M. (2007). Confronting sexual stigma and prejudice: Theory and practice. Journal of Social Issues, 63(4), 905. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00544.x

Herek, G. M. (2009). Sexual stigma and sexual prejudice in the United States: A conceptual framework. In D. A. Hope (Ed.), Contemporary perspectives on lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities (pp. 65–111). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09556-1_4

Hill, D., & Willoughby, B. (2005). The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7140-x

Holland, L., Matthews, T. L., & Schott, M. R. (2013). “That’s so gay!”: Exploring college students’ attitudes toward the LGBT population. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(4), 575–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2013. 760321

Horn, S. (2006). Heterosexual adolescents’ and young adults’ beliefs and attitudes about homosexuality and gay and lesbian peers. Cognitive Development, 21(4), 420–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.06.007

Horn, S. S., & Heinze, J. (2011). "She can’t help it, she was born that way": Adolescents’ beliefs about the origins of homosexuality and sexual prejudice. Anales de Psicología, 27(3), 688–697.

Jayaratne, T. E., Ybarra, O., Sheldon, J. P., Brown, T. N., Feldbaum, M., Pfeffer, C. A., & Petty, E. M. (2006). White Americans' genetic lay theories of race differences and sexual orientation: Their relationship with prejudice toward Blacks, and gay men and lesbians. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(1), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430206059863

Jerome, C., Ting, S. H., Yeo, J. Y. (2021a). Examining the human dignity factor and the public’s attitudes towards LGBT in Malaysia. Asian Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 3(2), 12–22.

Jerome, C., Ting, S. H., Podin, Y., & Ahmad, S. S. W. (2021b). Public receptivity towards LGBT in recent times Malaysia: LGBT perspectives. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 11(14), 371–383. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v11-i14/8943

Jerome, C., Ting, S. H., Yeo, J. J. Y., & Ling, H. N. (2021c, February 27–28). LGBT in recent times Malaysia: Exploring the views of the different segments of Malaysian society. Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Business, Management, Social Science, Technology, Education and Engineering, Penang, Malaysia.

Juaini, N. J. M., Halim, M. S. A., Mohamad, L., Riza, N., & Chik, A. (2017). Social media and lesbians in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(11), 1005–1014. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v7-i11/3539

Jung, G. (2020). Evangelical Protestant women’s views on homosexuality and LGBT Rights in Korea: The role of Confucianism and nationalism in heteronormative ideology. Journal of Homosexuality, 68(13), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2020.1804254

Lambert, E. G., Ventura, L. A., Hall, D. E., & Cluse-Tolar, T. (2006). College students' views on gay and lesbian issues: Does education make a difference? Journal of Homosexuality, 50(4), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1300/ J082v50n04_01

Lannutti, P. J., & Lachlan, K. A. (2007). Assessing attitudes toward same-sex marriage: Scale development and validation. Journal of Homosexuality, 53(4), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360802103373

Larsen, K. S., Reed, M., & Hoffman, S. (1980). Attitudes of heterosexuals toward homosexuality: A Likert-type scale and construct validity. Journal of Sex Research, 16(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00224498009551081

Lee, I. C., & Lin, W. F. (2020). Us versus them: The debates on the legislation of same-sex marriage (1994–2015) in Taiwan. Journal of Homosexuality, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2020.1848148

Manalastas, E. J., Ojanen, T. T., Torre, B. A., Ratanashevorn, R., Hong, B. C. C., Kumaresan, V., & Veeramuthu, V. (2017). Homonegativity in Southeast Asia: Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Asia-Pacific Social Science Review, 17(1), 25–33.

Mokhtar, M. F., Sukeri, W. A., & Latiff, Z. A. (2019). Social media roles in spreading LGBT movements in Malaysia. Asian Journal of Media and Communication (AJMC), 3(2), 77–82.

Muhammad, S. (2000). Outlines of criminal law and justice in Islam. International Law Book Service.

Ng, C. G., Yee, A., Subramaniam, P., Loh, S. H., & Moreira, P. (2015). Attitudes toward homosexuality among nursing students in a public university in Malaysia: The religious factor. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(3), 182-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0182-0

O'Pry, R. K. (2012). Louisiana social workers: A study on attitudes toward LGBT youth [Master’s thesis]. Louisiana State University. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/676

Owoyemi, M. Y., Sabri, A. Z., & Sani, A. Z. (2013). LGBT; nature or ideology: The view of a former LGBT practitioner in Malaysia. Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 8(4), 104–111.

Özdemir, M., & Büyükgöze, H. (2016). Investigating the role of multicultural education and democratic values on LGBT attitudes of preservice teachers. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 13(1), 23–46.

Passani, A., & Debicki, M. (2016). Students opinions and attitudes toward LGBT persons and rights: Results of a transnational European project. Journal of LGBT Youth, 13(1–2), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653. 2015.1087927

Raja, S., & Stokes, J. P. (1998). Assessing attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: The modern homophobia scale. Journal of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Identity, 3(2), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023244427281

Reygan, F., & Moane, G. (2014). Religious homophobia: The experiences of a sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people in Ireland. Culture and Religion, 15(3), 298–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14755610.2014.942329

Roggemans, L., Spruyt, B., Droogenbroeck, F. V., & Keppens, G. (2015). Religion and negative attitudes towards homosexuals: An analysis of urban young people and their attitudes towards homosexuality. YOUNG, 23(3), 254–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/1103308815586903

Ryan, C., Russell, S. T., Huebner, D., Diaz, R., & Sanchez, J. (2010). Family acceptance in adolescence and the health of LGBT young adults. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 23(4), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-671.2010.00246.x

Sahri, M., Murad, K., Sirajuddin, M. D. M., Adil, M. A. M., & Daud, N. M. (2014). Analyzing the Islamic and legal awareness of the Muslim male students in Malaysia of the prohibition on cross dressing. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 21(10), 1718–1723.

Sheldon, J. P., Pfeffer, C. A., Jayaratne, T. E., Feldbaum, M., & Petty, E. M. (2007). Beliefs about the etiology of homosexuality and about the ramifications of discovering its possible genetic origin. Journal of Homosexuality, 52(3–4), 111–150. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v52n03_06

Teh, Y. K. (2001). Mak nyahs (male transsexuals) in Malaysia: The influence of culture and religion on their identity. International Journal of Transgenderism, 5(3), 97–103.

Ting, S. H., Chuah, K. M., Jerome, C., & Johnson, A. (2021, August 9). Spotlight on LGBT in Malaysian online newspapers: Insights from textual analytics. The EDP Audit, Control, and Security Newsletter. https://doi.org/10.1080/07366981.2021.1958733

Ting, S. H., Johnson, A., & Jerome, C. (2021). Backgrounding of LGBT in newspaper coverage in Malaysia. Asian Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 3(2), 1–11.

Thorn, D. W., & Deitz, J. C. (1989). Examining content validity through the use of content experts. The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research,9(6), 334–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/153944928900900602

Vijay, A., Earnshaw, V. A., Tee, Y. C., Pillai, V., White Hughto, J. M., Clark, K., Kamarulzaman, A., Altice, F. L. & Wickersham, J. A. (2018). Factors associated with medical doctors' intentions to discriminate against transgender patients in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. LGBT Health, 5(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt. 2017.0092

Woodford, M. R., Silverschanz, P., Swank, E., Scherrer, K. S., & Raiz, L. (2012). Predictors of heterosexual college students’ attitudes toward LGBT people. Journal of LGBT Youth, 9(4), 297–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 19361653.2012.716697

Woodford, M. R., Atteberry, B., Derr, M., & Howell, M. (2013). Endorsement for civil rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people among heterosexual college students: Informing socially just policy advocacy. Journal of Community Practice, 21(3), 203–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705422.2013.811623

Yeo, J. J. Y., Ting, S. H., & Jerome, C. (2021, May 29). Religion and attitudes towards LGBT in Malaysia. Proceedings of 2nd Kuala Lumpur International Conference on Business, Education, Social Sciences and Technology 2021 (KLIBEST 2021), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Zawawi, J. W. M., Hassan, H., Kho, S. N., & Hashim, N. (2020). Malaysian audience reaction of news frame setting towards LGBT Issues. International Journal of Modern Trends in Social Sciences, 3(11), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.35631/IJMTSS.3110010